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A study of Distinction Between Intelligence and Creativity and Some of Their Correlates Amonga Group of Pakistani Children
(Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar, 1978) Mahnazir Riaz
Effects of Television Programme on Children
(Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 1978) Alay Ahmad
The purpose of the present investigation to study the effects of television programmes of varying types ahd spot messages upon school children, Ninetyfour TV and fifty non-TV children of grades III-x, and ranging in ages between seven to fifteen years were studied through open-ended interview. Pifty fathers of TV. children were also interviewed, Content analysis of these interviews was then carried out. All the interviewees belonged to the educated upper-middle class, residing on the University of Peshawar campus, .A comparison was made between the children's behaviour before they possessed TV, and their behaviour after they had viewed it for at least a period of 12 months... The behaviour of TV children was also compared with that of the non-TV.ones belonging to the same population and during the same period, In the case of TV children, the following variables were studied: TV programme preference, and its causes; TV viewing hours; learning from TV programmes and advertisements;..meeting place of the family; frequency and nature of communication with the family members while watching TV. programmes; reactions to the visit of friends during TV viewing; preference between movies and TV programmes, Seth the TV and non-TV children were studied in respect of the followiic variables: Total amount of time spent on meeting friends outside TV hours? play; radio; hours of sleeping. and rising; home study; effects of TV upon reading habits of magazines, books, newspaper; and English vocabulary. Results show that social drama wes most favoured by the girls. Crime and violence programmes were most favoured by the boys. Their fathers, however, regarded crime and violence as unsuitable programmes for their children. Documentaries and interviews were the least favoured programmes for both, The TV children preferred programmes heaving partial-fantasy contents. Humour wes the major factors of programme preference, Children watched tV for an average of 18.09 hours weekly during winter and 18.01 hours weekly during summer, Another interesting observation was that even though the entire family wetched TV programmes together, there wes hardly any verbal interaction among its members, Results also indicate that interactions with visiting friends are inversely related to the decree of programme preference, Results show that TV children eferred TV programmes as compared to movies, Furthermore, results show that televiewing reduced hours of meeting with friends, play, radio and study. TV viewing also adversely affected the reading habits of magazines, books; and newspapers, As compared with non-TV children, the TV ones were found to be late bed-goers and late risers and the latter sleep for lesser time, A large majority of fathers of TV children reported that the letter had learnt some undesirable behaviour from TV programmes and snot messages, At the same time, however, they as well as their children thought that TV had a positive effect on general information and vocabulary. The latter was also confirmed through the WIS Vocebulery Scale
ANALYSIS OF THEMES OF CHILDRENS READERS { URDU IN TERMS OF ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION AND POWER MOTIVES IN PAKISTAN
(Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar, 1985) Mahar Bano
The present research was designed to study the dominant motivational trends in Pakistani society by means of thematic analysis of popular Urdu short stories for children written by Pakistani writers during the period 1947-82. For this purpose a total of 250 short stories were selected fror. different children's magazines and readers published in Pakistan during this period. The stories were further categorized into three time periods, 1947-1958, 1959-1970 and 1971-1982 according to their probable years of publication. These periods roughly correspond to the three phases of political development in Pakistan. The first time period contains 72 stories, the second has 79 and the third contains 99 stories. An exploratory study of 22 children's text book stories in Urdu, published by the N.W.F.P. Text Book Board from 1981 onward was also undertaken to see if the “text book" stories were any different form "popular" ones. The stories were analyzed in terms of n Achievement, n Affiliation and n Power. The guide for coding the motives was McClelland's method of “coding historical source materials for motivational variables" (1975). These motives, as borne out by previous studies, are productive of great societal consequences including economic development, war, peace and conquest (McClelland; 1961 and 1975).Results of the present research show that among the above three motives, n Power, on the whole is highest, n Achievement is lowest and n Affiliation is in between, and these differences are significant (Table Nos.5 and 1.0). That n Achievement is consistently extremely low, while n Affiliation follows n Power rather tamely, perhaps as a partially balancing factor is also clearly borne out by Table No.5 and Figure No.IvCertain other aspects of these results e.g., aifferences. ‘i between magazines and readers, have also been highlighted in different tables and figure. Figure No. V and VI are particularly worth looking at in this connection. An attempt has been made to discuss these results in terms of value/incentives and expectancies found in Pakistani society. In general, the expectancy— value theory has been found to provide an appropriate interpretative framework for these results. Towards the close of the thesis, some of the practical implications of the present study and suggestions for future research have been offered.
A STUDY OF THE THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS OF FAITH AND MENTORS IN MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
(Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar, 1986-05) SYEDA Farhana Jahangir; Dr.S. Zulfiqar Gilani
The present research was designed to study the therepeutic effects of faith and religious mentors in mental health problems. For this purpose number of different religious mentors were approached. They helped in the selection and contact with the subjects who once suffered from psychological problems and received faith therapy. It was also ascertained that these subjects did not receive any other kind of therepeutic treatment. The information regarding the nature of psychological disturbance, severity of the problem and duration of faith therapy was collected and cross checked by interviewing the subjects and their families. On the basis of this information every, subject's case history was prepared. The symptoms shown at the time of distrubance were taken from their case histories and diagnosed with the help of DSM-III. It was noticed that the majority of the subjects included in the present study were severly disturbed and their psychopathology bordered on the psychotic or was clearly psychotic. At the time of this research five different objective and standardzed tests were adminstered to every subject individually, to measure psychological health. According to these test results as well as the verbal reports of the subjects, they are all functioning normally at present. The results indicate that people Living in this culture are likely to benifit from faith therapy. An attempt is made to explain these results within the context of our socio-religious culture.
A Critical Study of the Project Appraisal Management and Control System in Pakistan: An Exercise in Evaluation
(Department of Economics, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 1989) Saiyeda Zia Al-Jalaly; Supervised by Main M. Nazeer
In common with most developing countries, the history of planned development in Pakistan is replete with flopped projects, projects that don not see themselves to completion within the stated time and cost, or projects which do not fulfil their avowed objectives. Even otherwise well conceived projects face difficulties at the implementation on other related stages. Worse Still, the project cycle system has neither been examined nor regarded in its totality as an integrated system. This study is an in-depth analysis and evaluation of the project appraisal, management, and control system in Pakistan. The approach taken is an integrated one where, despite the emphasis on the ex-ante appraisal and implementation stages, the entire project cycle in Pakistan has been examined in order to the able to link the stages and study the problems of omission and commission which emerge at the implamentation stage. The study is, however, confined to the public sector projects which need to pass through the well laid out procedures. Being a study in the evaluation of a system, it has involved quantitative as well as qualitative examinations. These examinations range from a review of the theoretical aspects of the project cycle and its stages as well as the techniques used at various stages, to the progression of the project cycle in Pakistan, and eventually to an evaluation of the system and recommendations to improve the system. The theoretical sections are based on an extensive review of literature followed by use of secondary data based on government publications, supplemented by intervious and discussions with experts involved at various levels of planning and stages of the cycle. The main findings of the study centre around the inadequacies in the structure of PC-1, cost and time overruns, data gaps, motivation and training of personnel, lack of coordination, absence of contingency planning, lack of appropriate apprasal parameters, problems relating to project selection criteria and procedures, lack of staff, absence of an institutional link between appraisal wing and monitoring team. Findings relating to the approval and implementation stages of projects relate to the distortions arising out of anticipatory approvals, breaking of projects into smaller components to avoid higher echelons of approval and appraisal, problems arising out of the discrepancies between the need and availability of resources, a total absence fo any input or tiem plans leading to raw material constraints, delays in the provisions of essential services and physical infrastructure, problems arising out of the bases of award of contracts and selection of sites, lack of inter-agency coordination and communication and lack of a modern progress monitoring system. Findings in the field of project montoring/control centre inter alia around lack of processing of the information collected, too much information requested, jtoo frequently, and no sifting of information by level of importance, lack of trained personnel to undertake montoring; absence of an institutional monitoring set-up to handle un-anticipated problems; absence of forward and backward flow of information and decisions through an established channel. The study comprises six chapters- the first four laying out the system as it is, the fifth is devoted to an evaluation of the system, while the sixth contains the main conclusions and policy recommendations.
A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND FAMILY
(Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar, 1989-10) RAAT WAZ Supervised By: Dr. S. Zulfigqar Gilani
The present research was designed to study the relationship of individual psychopathology and the family. For this purpose psychotic and neurotic patients were selected from the psychiatry wards of Lady Reading and Khyber Teaching Hospitals. Their families were approached and those families were kept in the sample which agreed to co-operate. An equal number of families were selected who did not have a neurotic or psychotic member. Different psychological tests were administered to each member of the family in every category. The purpose of these tests was to assess the mental health, adjustment of a person in the family and the ego-strength of each family member. The aim was to see the effects of a disturbed person on other members of the family and the contribution of the family, if any, in the disturbance of such a member. The results indicate that the Presence of at disturbed member in the family effects others; the disturbance in the parental relationship effects the Psychological condition of the children. Comparison of the different categories of families revealed no Significant difference on two of the tests. On Family Adjustment Test there was ® significant difference between different groups.
A CROSS- CULTURAL STUDY OF CHILD REARING PRACTICES AND THEIR EFFECT ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT.
(Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar, 1991-04) NASEEM R. SAHIBZADA Supervised by (Dr. Mrs. Mah Nazir Riaz)
The main purpose of the present study was to find out the major difference in child rearing techniques, used by Pakistani and Kenyan mothersandtoexplore their effects on personality development. For this purpose, a total of 161 families were randomly drawn from a population of Peshawar (Pakistan) and Nairobi (Kenya). From each family, a mother and one child were included in the sample. The study was carried in two parts. In part A, the main difference in child rearing techniques were studied and an unstructered questionnaire on mothers, was administered. Part B explored the effects of child rearing techniques on personality dimensions. Here CAT was administered on their children. The results revealed that Kenyan mothers prefered breast feeding more as compared to Pakistani mothers (P<.01). Bottle feeding, on the other hand, was less preferred by Kenyan mothers as compared to Pakistani mothers cP<.01). In both the cultural groups, a higher percentage of mothers belonging to joint family system preferred bottle feeding in contrast to the nucleus family system (P<0.1). The data further revealed that a high percentage of Pakistani mothers wean and toilet train their children earlier (P<.01), as compared to Kenyan mothers. Moreover, mothers belonging to the higher income groups in Pakistan as well as Kenya, toilet train their children earlier as compared to lower income group (P<.01). In the case of punishment, as a mode of discipline, a higher percentage of Pakistani mothers punish their children for misbehaviour, as compared to Kenyan mothers (P<.05). In joint family system, mothers of both the cultural groups, reward their children for good behaviour more, in contrast to nucleus family system (P<.05). The results also revealed that mothers from both the cultures, belonging to higher income groups, reward good school work more as compared to lower to lower income groups (P<.05). The results of Part B revealed that independance was highly related to bottle feeding (P<.01) whereas, breast feeding shows no such relationship. Furthermore, the sex of the child shows a significant relationship with aggressive behaviour (P<.05). Thus, a high percentage of boys, of both the cultural, groups exhibit aggressive behaviour more frequently as compared to girls.
A CROSS- CULTURAL STUDY OF CHILD REARING PRACTICES AND THEIR EFFECT ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT.
(Department of Pyschology, University of Peshawar, 1991-04) NASEEM R. SAHIBZADA
The main purpose of the present study was to find out the major difference in child rearing techniques, used by Pakistani and Kenyan mothersandtoexplore their effects on personality development. For this purpose, a total of 161 families were randomly drawn from a population of Peshawar (Pakistan) and Nairobi (Kenya). From each family, a mother and one child were included in the sample. The study was carried in two parts. In part A, the main difference in child rearing techniques were studied and an unstructered questionnaire on mothers, was administered. Part B explored the effects of child rearing techniques on personality dimensions. Here CAT was administered on their children. The results revealed that Kenyan mothers prefered breast feeding more as compared to Pakistani mothers (P<.01). Bottle feeding, on the other hand, was less preferred by Kenyan mothers as compared to Pakistani mothers cP<.01). In both the cultural groups, a higher percentage of mothers belonging to joint family system preferred bottle feeding in contrast to the nucleus family system (P<0.1). The data further revealed that a high percentage of Pakistani mothers wean and toilet train their children earlier (P<.01), as compared to Kenyan mothers. Moreover, mothers belonging to the higher income groups in Pakistan as well as Kenya, toilet train their children earlier as compared to lower income group (P<.01). In the case of punishment, as a mode of discipline, a higher percentage of Pakistani mothers punish their children for misbehaviour, as compared to Kenyan mothers (P<.05). In joint family system, mothers of both the cultural groups, reward their children for good behaviour more, in contrast to nucleus family system (P<.05). The results also revealed that mothers from both the cultures, belonging to higher income groups, reward good school work more as compared to lower to lower income groups (P<.05). The results of Part B revealed that independance was highly related to bottle feeding (P<.01) whereas, breast feeding shows no such relationship. Furthermore, the sex of the child shows a significant relationship with aggressive behaviour (P<.05). Thus, a high percentage of boys, of both the cultural, groups exhibit aggressive behaviour more frequently as compared to girls.
The Role of Tourism in the Economic Development of Pakistan A Case Study of Northern Areas
(1998) Muhammad Bilal Malick; Supervised by Dr. Naeem ur Rehman Khattak
The present study, conducted with main focus on Northern Areas, was designed to: inquire into the state of tourism potentials; assess its socio-economic impact; and draw guidelines for minimisation of its adverse and maximization of beneficial impacts in future. The study is addressed to, but not mainlyfocused on, hypotheses that: (i) there is a positive relationship between tourism and economic development; (ii) the socio-culturalfactors and tourism are not necessarily inversely related; (iii) the intensity ofsocial, economic, environmental, and other impacts oftourism moves in sympathy with the level oftourists inflow expressed asproportionoflocal population in tourist receiving area. MAIN FINDINGS: The study, on the whole, brings out thefact that tourism has hadpositive impact on project area and that these promise to grow deeper and wider as tourism grows. Main findings in this respects are as follows: • Most of the tourists were domestic; inflow of foreign tourists is, however, positively upward. • Some 60% of tourists were males; majority belonged to 16-30 years age group; as many as 94% were educated; 88% visited the project area for the first time; 50% spent 4-8 nights in the project area. • The single largest category (35%) of tourists comprised of students/teachers, followed by government employees (31%), commercial employees (17%) and businessmen (3%). • Most tourists carried with them Rs. 8,000-10,000 per headfor visit to the Northern Areas. Majority of them spent around Rs. 300-400 per day per head. • The single largest number of local tourists came from NWFP (45%), followed by Punjab (41%), while among the foreign tourists the corresponding position is held by England (27.3%), followed by Germany (20.4%). •Tourism has positively affected agricultural sector of the economy. Total operated area under cultivation increased by 28% during last 10 years. Overall production ofcrops especiallyfruits increased by 782%; vegetables 510%; fodder crops 650%; wheat 31%; and maize 20%. Land management practices have improved too. Farmers cultivate all crops more scientifically than before. Use of mechanization on farms has increased nearlysix-folds. Average income from agricultural sector has increased from Rs. 15,00020,000 per annum in 1984, to Rs. 30,000-40,000 per annum in 1994. •Although agricultural sector is still the main provider ofjobs considerable expansion has taken place in off-farm employment and tourism development has made a major contribution in this respect.j •There were no reports of women engaged in tourism sector. However, they are now getting better job opportunities in health and education sector comparedto ten years before. •The project area has registered considerable improvement in infrastructure during 1984-94. There has been much expansion in banking (92%), communication facilities (203%) schools (316%), health facilities (121%), electricity (233%), sanitation (275%), water (103%), roads (83%) and housing (144%) during last ten years. These developments have facilitated tourism and are also to an important extent the outcome of tourism development policy of the government. •Mobility of local people has also increased. Visits tofamily andfriends have increased by 125%, visiting more places by 788% and utilization of modern vehicles by 362% during 1984-94. •Temporary and permanent out migration of local people has come down by 28% and47% respectively after 1984. However, temporary migration of local people to urban centers, within project area, forjob/business has increased by 153% and temporary inflow of outside people to project area for job/business has increased by 267% in last 10 years. •Tourism has had very little adverse impact on the level ofcorruption, dignity ofpeople, and goodwill towards foreigners in the area. Local controls are foundstill effective. • Some concern isfound among the locals as well as tourists about increase in deforestation, soil erosion and excessive hunting of the wild life in the area. The project area cannot withstandflow of mass tourism, overcrowding and excessive use ofplaces for recreation. •Tourism promotion has induced changes in consumption behaviour of the local population, with regard to certain types ofbeverages, vegetables, dairy products, andfashion accessories etc. The average consumption expenditure of sample family has gone up from Rs. 20,000-30,000 per annum to Rs.30,000-40,000 per annumin last ten years. • Rise in local people’s income and employmentlevel, to which tourism has made a good contribution, increase in their mobility, and their growing contacts with tourists from more developed regions of Pakistan, as well as foreign countries, have had a positive impact on their attitude towards, and perception of, modern education, modern medical practices (allopathic treatment) in preference to old ones, housing, sanitation etc. The quality of life has, thus on the whole, been improving due to these positive influences. CONCLUSIONS: Several important conclusions emergefromthis study’s findings on socio-economic impacts of tourism in the context of Pakistan in general and Northern Areas in particular. These conclusions are stated below with reference to the study’s hypotheses. I) Thereis a positive relationship between tourism and economic development. The study confirms this hypothesis. In the particular case ofNorthern Areas, tourism has proved to be one ofmajor catalysts ofinitiation and acceleration of development process, and this role will grow with further growth of tourism. All sectors of the project area’s economypresent positive readings. The farm sector has experienced significant expansionbothvertically and horizontally. Visibility ofnon-farm sector’s expansion is even greater. Thus, all told, a Significant rise in income and employment has taken place in the project area, more goods and services are available now than before, consumption patterns are changing, and the local economyis on the whole muchbetter placed than a decade ago. Thus, tourism has made a significant contribution to the area’s economy. II) The socio culturalfactors and tourism are not necessarily inversely related. The study'sfindings confirmthis hypothesis, but with reservations. In the particular context of the project area, little or no impact on the area’s overall social and cultural environments has been caused bytourists inflow yet. Some adverse impacts, on negligible scale, have been observed in localities which receive tourists in a relatively large number — and these are all urbanlocalities. But local institutions are still strong enoughto counter the negative impacts. The project area is not yet exposed to negative impacts in this sphere, because the tourists are relatively small in number. But, the hazards are bound to grow as tourists’ number relative to local population increases. Appropriate planning can, however, help minimize these hazards. III) The intensity of social, economic, environmental, and other impacts of tourism moves in sympathy with the level oftourists inflow expressed as proportion of local population in tourist receiving area. This hypothesis is confirmed by the present study. Infact this conclusion is embodied in hypotheses as discussed above. Tourism has begun positively impacting the project area’s economy. The strength of impacts is presently low, but it will increase with tourists inflow, repeat visits, and increase in stay. The adverse impacts are lowor negligible presently — such as erosion ofsocial values, sexual immorality, crimes, conspicuous consumption, etc. A definite positive association betweenthese negative impacts and level of tourists inflow is observable. Appropriate planning can, however, help minimize the same. Thus, to conclude, the above hypothesis in duly verified by the study’sfindings. Summing up the aforestated three inter-linked conclusions, it is concluded that tourism, if properly planned and kept within tourists receiving area’s tourists carrying capacity, performs the role of catalyst of development. It contributes positively to initiation and acceleration ofthe process ofdevelopmentandinits turn receives impetusfrom the same i.e; development. Therefore, tourism industry should be an integral component of development plans for areas that have tourists attractions, such as the Northern Areas.
An Inquiry into Genesis and Socio-Economic Impact of Land Reforms in Pakistan with Particular Reference to NWFP
(Department of Economics, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 1998) Shahriyar Khan; Supervised by Abdus Samad Khan (Director, Center of Applied Economics Studies, UOP)
This study traces the genesis of land reforms in Pakistan with particular reference to the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), appraises their socio-economic impact, and examines the case for further reforms. It embraces the tenancy, quasi-distributive, anddistributive reforms introducedin post-1947 period in Pakistan, but the main focus is on the distributive land reforms (DLRs) of 1959, 1972, and 1977. The genesis of land reforms, designed to reduce concentration of land ownership, is traceable to the legislations introduced in early fifties to improve tenanc ysituation, confer ownership rights on occupancy tenants, and abolish the Jagirs. These reforms proved as precursors to the DLRs the first of which was introducedin 1959. The chronology and contents of land reforms-in the widersense, clearly show that the ruling political parties adhered to the policy of gradualism, rather than radicalism, on the land reform front. In the first phase, lasting over a decade, the reforms aimed at only minimizing the adverse impacts of mal-distribution of land through tenancy and quasi distributive reforms, but avoided correcting the land distribution pattern. Mounting pressure for imposing a land ownership ceiling led the government to introduce the required legislation, but only as late as 1959. The 1959-Land Reform was by all standards a very lenient reformas clearly indicated by the high land ceilings, liberal concessions, and several exemptions providedby it. Even where no exemptions/concessions were available, a person could retain as many as 36,000 PIU worth of land or 500 acres/irrigated or 1000 acres/unirrigated land, whichever be more, which was considered to be too high a ceiling. The 1972-land reform loweredthe ceiling to 12,000 PIUs, again rather too high as indicated the fact that the average farm size then obtaining in the country was a mere half of the subsistence holding (12.5 acres). This realization led to a further lowering of land ceilings to 8,000 PIUs in 1977. All the three DLRs were launched with great expectations with respect to their positive socio-economic impacts. This study finds that on the whole the impacts have been of a positive nature, but their quantum has been too small to be called significant. A definite limit to land ownership has been imposed, and the old craze land accumulation seems to have subsided. But very little of the privately owned land has changed hands. a very small percentage of big land owners has been affected, and similariy a very small percentage of small farmers/tenants has been benefitted as will be borne out by the following statistics. Sr.No. Particulars Units Land Reforms of 1959, 1972 &1977 NWFP Pakistan 1. Affected Landlords Number 502 2. Total area resumed Acres 407,381 4,055,363 3. Area given to tenants/small farmers Acres 161,578 1,777,711 4. Number of beneficiaries Number 37,549 262,700 5. Average area recieved per beneficiary Acre 6.78 4.3 6. Total resumed area as %age of total 6.94 4.5 privately owned land in NWFP Thus, only 6.94% of the privately owned land was resumed in NWFP. This is too small anarea to affect the land ownership pattern even mildly. Similarly, only 37,549 persons were given land. They constituted approximately two percent of small land owners/tenants who were land aspirants. The smallness of the number of beneficiaries, and also thefact that on average they got 6-94 acres each, is clearly indicative of the smallness of land reform achievements and impacts. Distribution of land on such a small scale should be expected to producenovisible or lasting changeat macro level and thatis confirmed by relevant data. At micro-level i.e; beneficiaries household level, visibility of positive impacts of land reformsis, however, much better. All land recipients have experienced some socio-economic improvements-which most of them attribute to a large extent, to land reforms. The improvements are indicated by increase in the area owned by beneficiaries, rise in agri productivity/employment level/income, better access to educational and medicalfacilities, and beneficiaries expression of a sense of improvementin their socio-economic lot. Although the past reforms havenot madea visible and lasting impact on land ownership pattern andassociated aspects of agri and rural sector, their achievements are on the whole of a positive nature. Thenotedpositive impacts al macro and micro levels under score, if anything, only the need of further reforms of more radical nature and a wider scope. The land ceilings need be lowered and they should be placed on family holdings. Thereis simultaneously a need also to check proliferation of farms i.e; the trend towards decline infe rm size need be checked. The reform package should be such that it provides for equitable distribution of land, paves way for scientific agriculture, provides for more employment, and in the ultimate analysis turns agriculture into a dynamic sector.
Myth and Reality in Sex-Role Discrimination
(Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 1998) Asad Bano; Supervised by Prof. Dr Mah Nazir Riaz
The present study examined the gender differences between personality characteristics of male and female executives through California Psychological Inventory (Gough, 1987) and an indigenous Work Management Scale. The sample consisted of 70 executives (35 male and 35 female) randomly selected from various districts of N.W.F.P. It was found that male executives are significantly better than female executives in their interpersonal relationships, intellectual stance and achievement ability, Whereas female executives have scored higher than male executives on the scales measuring intrapersonal controls, value styles, beliefs and conceptual interests. The differences between personality traits of executives who have joined the profession of their parents and those who have entered into the profession other than their parents was also studied. The findings revealed that the executives who have adopted the profession of their Parents scored higher on the scales measuring Dominance, Sociability, Responsibility, Socialization, Self Control, and Good Impression. Along with these scales the ferfiale executives also showed Significantly better performance than the other group of female executives on Social Presence, Self-Acceptance and Achievement via Conformance scales. On the other hand, the male executives who havejoined the profession other than that of their wards performed significantly better on the Achievement via Conformance, Psychological Mindedness and Social Presence scales of the instrument. Female executives of this group performed better than female executives of other group on Achievement via Indepeterce, Intellectual Efficiency, Psychological Mindedness, Flexibility and Femininity scales. Female executives scored higher than male executives on the Work Management Scale. Job performance of these executives were also evaluated by their subordinates through Purdue Rating Scale (Remmers and Hobson, 1951). The sample consisted of randomly selected 430 subordinates. The investigation revealed insignificant differences among both gender of the executives when they were evaluated by their same sex subordinates, except on Social responsibility scale where female executives are rated higher than male executives by their subordinates.It was also noticed that even the varied educational qualification of the executives rendered no difference in their ratings. By contrast, significant differences are revealed when the evaluations were made by raters of gender other than that of their bosses. Female executives are rated low by their male subordinateson all the three scales of Purdue Rating Scale, which are Social responsibility, Administrative achievement and Democratic orientation than their female colleagues. Whereas male executives are rated higher by their female subordinates on all the three scales of the rating scale thantheir male colleagues.It is concluded from the research Study that societal normsand traditions effect the personality traits of the executives and also create evaluative biases.
Association Among Fertility Behaviour in Women Using Various Contraceptive Methods (A Case Study of Pakistan)
(Department of Economics, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 1998-08) Ijaz Majid; Supervised by Dr. Naeem ur Rehman Khattak
The data collected by the National Institute of Population Studies, Islamabad in Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey, 1990-91 was analysed and investigated in this study. The data was in the computer base of the Institute consisting of 6,611 eligible women. The main emphasis ofthe data was on, background characteristics, reproductive history, knowledge and use of contraception, pregnancy and breast feeding, vaccinations and the health of children, marriages, family size preferences and husbands background. The main objective of this study was to_ investigate statistical methods, which can be used. for the analysis of such data, so as to identify various variables that can affect the fertility pattern of the women using various types of contraceptive methods. This in turn will lead to identify variations among different methods of contraception that will have an effective control on the fertility of a woman. For this purpose, different methods of analysis previously being used and recommendedin the literature were studied and new methods were developed for analysis of this data so as to identify the variables of importance. Since the main purpose of the study was to investigate an association amongthe Fertility Behaviour in Women using different methods of Contraception/fertility regulation methods. The initial part of the study contained an elementary data analysis of the data. This was done to find out the a sources of variation in the data, and to investigate the important variables affecting the fertility behaviour of the women. The current trend of rapid population growth in Pakistan calls for serious thinking and action. If it is allowed to continue with the prevailing growth rate, it will adversely effect the socio-economic development of the country as with the current rate we are heading towards what is called population bomb. If it explodes, it would devastate the economic and social fabric of our country. Hence,it is the time that these important variables effecting the fertility behaviour of a woman should be taken care off. In this study along with simple analysis of cross tabulation and summary statistics computed, regression analysis was also used. The method of regression analysis was used in two steps. First, simple regression models were analysed. Second, in order to see the effect of a variable on the dependent variable, new regression models were formulated and analysed. This method helped us in pinpointing the important variables and finally developing a model of choice. Further Analysis of Variance was used to see the overall significance of regression models. The important variables as identified in the present study were age of the respondent, education,living number of children, family planning practices and attitudes, spousal communication and husbands level of education etc. Finally one o fthe major conclusions derived from the present study wasthat there was a strong association among the fertility behavior of the women using various contraceptive methods and hence its effects on the numberf born. Besides this, the study indicated that modern contraceptive methods are more effective as compared to traditional methods.
A Comprehensive Analysis of Wheat Production and Balances Its Demand and Supply Problems and Remedial Measures (A Case Study of Pakistan)
(Department of Economics, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 1999) Mohammad Naeem; Supervised by Prof Abdus Samad (Director, Center of Applied Economics Studies)
Wheat is a universally cultivated and produced staple food item of commonuse. In Pakistan, it is being used regularly. Its extensive and constant use has made people habitual ofit and they cannot evenbearits partial shortage or scarcity. The purpose of the present study is to remove suchtransitory shortages between consumption (demand) and production (supply) to bridge the gap between them throughefficient wheat policy. Consumption (demand) of wheat depends highly on population growth and changes in per capita income of the country. Population of Pakistan is increasing at a higher rate (2.7 percent), which is creating pressure on the cultivated land and thus adversely affecting production of wheat. Moreover, the per capita incomeis increasing at a rate of 11.9 percent which is raising the aggregate demand for better quality of wheat. Thus, a gap is created between demand and supply of wheat whichis further widening with the passage of time. This problem can be solved throughefficient government policies, which will bring self-sufficiency of wheat to the economy and may even lead towards exportation of wheat and earn foreign exchange in import substitution. Self-sufficiency in food grain productionis the national goal. Pakistan enjoys a comparative advantage in wheat production, therefore, the self-sufficiency goal is theoretically valid. The essence of the findings of the present studyis that the irrigation induced technological changes would accelerate the growth of wheat production, resulting in a gain of economic efficiency and achieving self sufficiency. The key success to increase wheat production lies in rapid adoption of technology. The diffusion of biochemical technology (HYV, fertilisers pesticides, etc) is a more appropriate path towards technological progress than alternative labour saving mechanisation (labour — intensive and capital intensive techniques). Production (supply) of wheat depends onthe total land availability for the crop, irrigation facilities, climatic conditions and market price of wheat. Wheat is sown in the month of November-December, where in rain fed areas, we receive verylittle rain and which alwaysbrings a bad harvest. It is an exceptional case in Baluchistan and N.W.F.P. but bumper cropping in Punjab and Sindh have irrigation facilities. Effort has been madeinthis study to achieve an equilibrium between demand and supply of wheat. For this, data has mainly been obtained and used from government published agricultural bulletins, economic surveys, etc. Moreover a little primary data has also been used for the derivation of Cobb-Douglas production function and Marginal Physical Product of labour. A very useful Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model has been used in this study which has forecasted wheat production upto 2010 (13 years ahead). This will help the planners and concerned agencies in time importation of wheat. The findings of the study are that both irrigation and technology would play the leading role in the growthof future wheat production. The government will also have to change its wheat policies in light of the new development. Specially it has to eliminate subsidies and checkits role in the price formation. Finally if the recommendations ofthe study are adopted, Pakistan will not only become self-sufficient in wheat production but may emerge as wheat exporting country also.
Economic Efficiency of the Agrarian Structure in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan An Econometric Analysis
(Department of Economics, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 1999-04) Jehanzeb; Supervised by Dr. Naeem ur Rehman Khattak
The study entitled “Economic Efficiency of the Agrarian Structure in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan” is exclusively based on primarily data collected from 200 farmers in NWFP, during 1997-98. The farmers have been selected randomly through the stratified Sampling procedure. For analysis, the sampled farmers are grouped on the basis offarm characteristics such as owners, owner-cum-tenant and tenants on one hand, and small and large farmers on the other. The core objective ofthe study is to quantify the economic efficiency of the agrarian structure in NWFP. In the empirical analysis various econometric techniques have beenused. This included the use of Translog Profit function, Lorenze Curve, Gini Coefficient, Cobb-Douglas Production Function and Linear Programming, etc. Beside these, the Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of various agricultural activities are also computed. The structural differences between different types of farms are determined with the help of Chow-Fratio. The results obtained from various statistical and econometric applications are coherent with the economic theory and of great help for diagnosing the agrarian structure of NWFP. Specifically, it has been discovered that the agrarian structure is inefficient mainly because of the skeweddistribution of operational holdings, difference in farm sizes and level of mechanization, land fragmentation, paucity of irrigation water and provision of creditfacilities. The analysis suggested that the level of inefficiency can be reduced to a greater extent by eliminating disparities of operational holdings. Significant reformative approachof land reform is proposed towards this end. The adoption of mechanization and provision of credit extension canalso help to rebate this inefficiency.
Causative Factors of Mental Retardation
(Department of Social Work, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 2002) Monica Qamar Zaman; Supervised by Prof. Dr Sarah Safdar
lhe study “Causative factors of Mental Retardation” focuses on the children with mental disabilities. Any disability or abnormality is a great problem for the disabled and for his/her family. The area of study was limited to the Mental Retardation Center, Complex for Special Education, Balochistan, Complex for Special Education, Hayatabad, Peshawar & Sarhad School for Rehabilitation of Disabled, Peshawar Objectives 1. To study the extent of congenital causes of mental retardation. 2. To study the environmental factors affecting the development of the mentally retarded. 3. Endogamyasa social factor to mental retardation. 4. Attitude of neighbors and other family members to the retarded child. Mental retardation involves a general delay in the development of intellectual and adoptive abilities and affects most areas of social cognitive and language functioning. Mental retardation is generally assessed by a combination oftesting on formal tests of intelligence and by observation of the child’s adoptive functioning. The levels and 1.Q scores of retardation are as Mild in between 5570, Moderate 40-54, severe, 23-39, profound below 25 (Bniot Scale). For this research, Sarhad Model School for Special Education and Complex for Special Education, Hayatabad Peshawar was selected from NWFP and Kiran Complex of Special Education School was selected from Baluchistan. All schools are under Federal Government. A total sample of 100 retarded children parents and their neighbors were selected for this research. Fifty Retarded children’s parents & 50 next-door neighbors of mental retarded child were selected from both provinces, to find out the main causative factors of mental retardation, and to know the societies mental approach i.e. their attitudes and their views about the retarded children. Mental retardation is a term, which covers all forms of less than normalintellectual functioning. (S. M. Bhatia, 1992). 1 . Assumption was: Families with poor Economic conditions have mal — nourished and poorhealth of the expecting mothers, whichaffects the fetus’s mental and physical development. 2 . Assumption was: Stress and strains on the expecting mothers affect the fetus and increases menta! retardation in newbornchildren. 3" Assumption was: Cousin marriages weaken the genes of couple andthey give birth to the mentally retarded children. Assumption No.4 was: Aged and physiological weak mothers give birth to mentally retarded children. From different research techniques interview technique was used for data collection. For pre-testing 10 interviews were taken, unnecessary things like repetition of questions and language ofthe interview schedule was checked,after interview schedule was improved. After data collection it was classified and tabulated. The main inferences were: •To knowthe causative factor of mental retardation. •To study the environmental factors affecting the development of the mentally retarded. • Endogamy as asocial factor to mental retardation. • Attitude of retarded child’s neighbor andhis family members.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ETHNIC SELF-DISCREPANCY IN AFGHAN REFUGEES AND NATIVE PUKHTOONSIN NWEP
(Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 2004) Muharmad Jahan Zeb Khan
The purpose of the research was to find out ethnic self-discrepancy among Pukhtoon Afghan refugees and native Pukhtoon population in NWFP. Besides determining differences in Pukhtoons’ Ideal and Real selves, the dynamics of interpersonal relationships between the two stated populations were also explored. The study was carried out into two phases viz., Preliminary Study and Main Study. In the preliminary phase, an Adjectives Checklist in Pukhto(PACL) was constructed for use in the second phase of the study. Keeping in view the Ideal and Real Pukhtoon character, adjectives were generated and evaluated by a team of experts. Out of the original pool of 182 adjectives, only 66 survived the process of qualitative evaluation by the experts. After calculating item-total correlations and factor analysis on a sample of 200 Pukhtoon students, 53 items were retained. The items were grouped under 8 factors, extracted after Varimax rotation. Values of reliability and validity were recorded to be significant at high levels. The Main Study was carried out to find out the ethnic self-discrepancy and ethnic self-concept of Pukhtoons on both sides of the Durand line. A sample of 200 Pukhtoons, including Afghan refugees and native Pukhtoons, was selected. Pakistani sample was the matched group of Afghani sample. PACL was used as an instrument for data collection. Self-discrepancy was found to be significant on Full scale as well as on subscales level (p< .0001) as a whole and for both males and females separately. Discrepancy was also found to exist at high level of significance for both Afghani and Pakistani Pukhtoons’ samples. High discrepancy group shows low ethnic self-concept as compared to Low discrepancy group in both of the samples. In case of Pakistani sample, both in High and Low discrepancy groups, self-perception was significantly higher as compared to their perception of Afghani Pukhtoons on PACL. Adjectives with high mean scores have been found to be confirming the literary and stereotypic concept of Pukhtoons in the contemporary Pukhtoon society.
FORMAL & INFORMAL SECTOR MICRO ENTERPRISES AND THEIR LINKAGES WITH THE REST OF THE ECONOMY: A CASE STUDY OF PESHAWAR URBAN MARKET
(Department of Economics, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 2004) Ghazala Yasmeen; Supervised by Dr. Anwar.F. Chishti
This study of 60 cases of micro enterprises, with data for three years (2001-3), found that, on average, a micro enterprise employed 4.54 laborers, with a 70:30 skilled and unskilled labor proportion. A total of Rs.561 thousands were- found invested in each micro enterprise with 39:61 capital and non-capital investments. Of the micro enterprises’ annual average total purchases of Rs.386 thousands, 15% were made from micro enterprises, 26% from small, 30% from medium and 29% from large businesses. Ofthe annual average total sale ofRs.1219 thousands, 48% were made to businesses and 52% to final consumers. Ofthe total sale of Rs.585 thousands to businesses, 19%, 23%, 27% and 31% were made to micro, small, medium and large enterprises, respectively. Micro enterprises, on average, gave rise to Rs.833 thousands per annum as value-addition. Value-addition ranged between Rs.213 thousands and Rs.1908 thousands. It remained fairly stable (CV = 0.4348) over the 2001-2003 period. Micro enterprise appeared to be the most contributory business medium;first, these provided employment to 4 — 5 persons per micro business and had been found the most labor-intensive businesses compared to small, medium and large enterprises. Second, micro enterprises contributed positively towards capital formation; on average, these increased their total investments by 66.60%, including a 100% increase in fixed capital and 50% increase in working capital. Third, contribution of micro enterprises towards value addition remained the highest (value-addition of Rs.02.19 for every rupee spent on raw-material purchases) compared to other businesses (Rs.01.52, Rs.01.80 and Rs.01.82 for small, medium and large enterprises, respectively). Fourth, micro enterprises contributed, on average, Rs.52 thousands to Rs.59 thousands to family welfare on monthly basis. Econometric analysis ofvalue addition in micro enterprises suggested that capital investments yielded the greatest positive contribution, followed by training of the entrepreneurs and improvementofskills of the labor engaged. second,sales to final-consumers accounted for the highest contribution, followed by sales-to-other businesses and sales-to-micro enterprises. Third, purchases (of raw materials), both from other businesses and micro enterprises, being the cost items, were negatively related with value-addition; however, since higher negativity came from purchases-from-other-businesses compared to the purchases-from-micro enterprises, the enhanced purchases from micro enterprises would help increase value-addition. The Leontief Input-Output model helped to estimate the ‘extent of backward linkages’, namely bLj > 1 for micro enterprises and bLj <1 for small, medium and large businesses, suggesting that it were only micro enterprises, whereina unit increase in final demand gaverise to a greater than average impact.The study recommended that establishment and development of micro enterprises be given priority, with special emphasis on more investments in capital goods, improvement ofemployees, skills and training ofthe entrepreneurs. It was further recommended that, without ignoring the importance ofsales-to-businesses, salesto-final-consumers be given special care as well as special emphasis be put on purchases-from-micro enterprises, without ignoring the importance of purchasesfrom-other businesses.
THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION AND LABOUR DISPLACEMENT IN NWFP
(2004) Muhammad Aurangzeb; Supervised by Dr. Mir Kalan Shah
The present study is based on cross sectional data of200 randomly selected respondents (130 mechanized and 70 traditional farms) in Peshawar District. The study shows that land owners have brought over 20 % ofwaste land under cultivation by utilizing farm machinery. The farm mechanization displaced over 35 % tenants who adopted other professionsresulting in significant increase in their income. The study exhibits that wheat and maize are the major crops in the research area. The manual labour requirements of the mechanized farms are nearly 23 % (in case ofthe wheat crop) and 50 % (in case of the maize crop) of that used on the traditional farms. The mechanization has, therefore, substantially reduced the manual labour input. Moreover, the rate of change ofthe mechanized farms is higher by 2.49 units for wheat and 2.33 units for maize than the traditional farms. The Marginal Physical Product (MPP) of machinery is higher than that ofthe manual labour and animal labour. The MPP ofmachinery is significantly higher on the ownercultivator farms as well as large farms. The analyses show that the yields per unit land of the major crops and milch animal population of the mechanized farmsare significantly higher than that ofthe traditional farms. The summation ofincome elasticity of inputs is less than one for each ofthe farming systems (mechanized/ traditional). As such it is operating at the stage of decreasing returns to scale. However, in this respect the traditional farms are worse than the mechanized farms. Both the croppingintensity and land use intensity of the mechanized farms are higher than that of the traditional farms. The mechanized farms have higher off-farm earnings due to their higher educational level as compared with traditional farms. The results depict that mechanization ofagriculture ofthe NWFP is lower as compared to other parts ofthe country. The availability of credit for different farm operations through a simple lending procedure is essential for the needy farmers. As the average land holding of the Province is much lower than the national average, so small size tractor/ machinery would be more appropriate for cultivation over here. With the adoption of these steps the crop productivity will increase due to which the country’s food and raw materials for manufacturing sector requirements will be met adequately. These measures can enhance the employment opportunities both at the agricultural and manufacturing sectors.
THE REVIVAL OF SICK INDUSTRIAL UNITS IN PAKISTAN (A CASE STUDY OF GADOON AMAZAI INDUSTRIAL ESTATE N-W.F.P) (1988-2000)
(Department of Economics, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 2004) Rukhsana Javed; Supervised by Ijaz Majid
Industrialization plays a vital role in economic development of a country. But unfortunately from the last few years this sector is facing quite a lot of problems in the country. The number ofsick industrial units is increasing. At present in Pakistan the numberof sick industrial units has gone over 4,000 units. The average growth rate of large scale manufacturing which was 8.2 during 1980, reduced to 1.6 in 1999-2000. The increasing incidence of industrial sickness is certainly a matter of deep concern not only for the industrialists, shareholders and creditors but also for the society at large. Gadoon Amazai industrial estate (GAIE) in NWFP is also seriously affected by this industrial sickness. This industrial estate was established in 1986 by governmentofPakistan to stop poppy cultivation to provide job opportunities to the affected people, to gencrate income for the country to earn foreign exchange and to bring this backward area at par with other developed areas of the country. GAIE with subsequent policies, after enjoying an unprecedented boom among industries for about two years, discovered itself in hot waters. Industrialists started leaving the industrial estate and billions of investments were wasted. People lost jobs, government revenues and industrialists “will” to do business. The purpose of the study was to carry out a comparative economic analysis of the situation before the establishment of GAIE and after its establishment. The specific objectives ofstudy were: To evaluate the role of industrial establishment in Gadoon Amazai area in promoting the socio-economic conditions, to analyse industrial policy of the government of Pakistan regarding Gadoon Amazai Industrial Estate, To identify the causes of sickness of the industrial units in Gadoon Amazai Industria! Estate, to asses the impact ofsick units on the inhabitants ofthe area, to suggest measures for formulating policy for the probable revival of sick industries in Gadoon Amazai, to identify main causes of sickness and to make suggestions for probable revival of these sick units. Two questionnaires were constructed, one addressed to the house hold sector and the other to industrialists. The questionnaires were filled in with the help of face-to-face interviews. The questionnaires addressed to the household sector collected data on house structure, facilities within the house and the socio-economic conditions of the people of the area. All types of facilities were compared before and after the establishment of GAIE. The data collected from the industrialists regarding the reasons of sickness and suggestions for the revival of industries were studied. Findings of the study were summarized andit was concluded that the establishment of GAIE had improved the socio economic conditions of the people of the area and the main reasons of sickness were withdrawn of the incentives. Other reasons were: distance from sea port, dependence on some of imported raw material and machinery, non availability of workshops orno facility ofrepair for damaged machinery, non availability of skill labour, poor infra structure, non availability of natural gas, high electricity charges etc. the sample industrialists recommended certain suggestions for the revivaloftheir sick units, among which the most important was continuation of incentives other recommendations were; provision of training facilities, workshopfacilities, improvement ofinfra structure, provisions of gas facilities and establishment of consultancy offices at GAIE to solve the problems of the industrialists. As Gadoon Amazai industrial estate had improved the socio economic conditions of the people of the area, the recommendations for probable revival ofsick industrial units must be honoured.
Economic Analysis of Consumption Pattern and Living Standard of Rural-Urban Population in North West Frontier Province of Pakistan
(Department of Economics, University of Peshawar. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 2004) Zilakat Khan Malik; Supervised by Dr. Jahan Zeb
The activities related to maintaining life and improving its condition encompass both consumption and production. The pattern and composition of consumption determine the standard of living, while the sole purpose of production is to provide the means of consumption and to increase the income. Higher consumption and its appropriate pattern improve the standard of living and economic development. The rural-urban division of population also influences the economic development. Therefore. topic of the dissertation was stated as "Economic Analysis of consumpation pattern and living standard of Rural-Urban population in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan" and an attempt was made to achieve the following main objectives: To asses the socio-economic conditions of Rural-Urban households and to analyse their budgetary position and To discuss their consumption pattern and living standard and to verify the .following main assumptions: o Socio-economic conditions and the budgetary position were not conducive to improve their living standard. o Significant fraction of income was spent on uneconomic pursuits. The consumption pattern was substandard. Scope of the study was confined to the NWFP. Both the primary and secondary sources of data were used for collection of data. A comprehensive interview schedule Ivas used to collect primary cross section data. A sample size of 120 households was distributed among six villages from rural region and six streets from urban region of the different strata of the province, determined on basis of developed districts and under developed/backward districts. The sample households were selected using a combination of Stratified Random Sampling and Simple Random Sampling techniques. According to Keynes psychological law of consumption, the simple and multiple linear consumption functions were estimated and the Marginal Propensities to Consume and to Save (MPC and MPS) were determined. For the size distribution (income) and determination of degree of poverty, the Lorenz curve, Gini-coefficient and the ratio of bottom 20% to top 20% were used. The study is organized in seven chapters followed by appendices and annexures. Chapter-I and 2 focus on the introduction and review of literature respectively. Demographic features of the sample households are analysed in chapter 3 and chapter 4 is devoted to "Budgetary Position of the sample households-. It was observed that the overall average family size was nine. More than half of the population consisted of dependent class. Females were greater in number. Majority (70%) of the sample population lived in the rural region depending on agriculture. Only 34.10% of the labour force could get employment. A remarkable proportion (84.13%) of unemployed females was recorded in the rural areas. Main occupation in the urban area was business, while it was farming in the rural areas.Majority of the sample households fell in the low income brackets. Very few families could reach higher income brackets. The level of consumption was very low. In absolute terms it it-as Rs. 120 lac per month for 2080 individuals. The consumption pattern was also not on the proper track Allocations to uneconomic pursuits and unproductive expenditures were greater as compared to spending on education. health and balanced .foods. As a consequence the standard of living was substandard and all the indicators did not prove to lead to the economic development. The empirical results also supported that the standard of living was substandard,because a very low autonomous consumption and a high marginal propensity to consume (due to the level of income on or closer to the break even point) led to less savings and in turn a lower level of investment, which adversely influenced production capacity and economic growth. This situation slowed down economic development. The techniques used for the size distribution showed that very few individuals of the society could receive a greater portion of income, while a greater number of households shared a very small fraction of the national income. It was concluded that in addition to some other factors, the unequal distribution of income and its severity were the main obstacles in achieving proper level and pattern of consumption, appropriate standard of living and desirable rate of economic development.

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